From the earliest written transmissions of the Qur’an, the process of codification (standardization) attributed to the Caliph ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān represents one of the most pivotal developments in the textual history of Islam. The term “Uthmanic Codex” or “Mushaf of ʿUthmān” refers to the standardized textual framework (rasm) that emerged from this process, along with the subsequent replication and dissemination of copies based on that model throughout the Islamic world.
According to Sunni tradition, the first organized compilation of the Qur’an began under the caliphate of Abū Bakr, supervised by Zayd ibn Thābit. During ʿUthmān’s reign, variant manuscripts circulating in different regions were reviewed, compared, and unified into a single canonical text skeleton (rasm), from which official copies were made and distributed to major cities.
The purpose of this initiative was not to suppress all variations but to limit them within an agreed-upon orthographic structure. In Shiʿi sources, there are references to an independent compilation by ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, though modern scholarship tends to approach these reports cautiously and interprets them as reflecting alternative transmission traditions rather than rival texts.
The rasm—the consonantal skeleton of the text without diacritical marks or vowel signs—constitutes the foundation of the Uthmanic standardization. Later generations supplemented this skeleton with vocalization and diacritical systems (iʿjām, tashkīl). Distinct reading traditions (qirāʾāt), such as those of Nāfiʿ, ʿĀṣim, and Kisāʾī, developed within the limits of this rasm, allowing for legitimate variation without compromising the unity of the Qur’anic text. Thus, a balance was achieved between textual uniformity and recitational diversity.
The earliest Qur’anic manuscripts were written in Hijazi script, characterized by its slanted and informal ductus. Over time, Kufic script emerged as the preferred formal style, particularly for monumental and ceremonial copies. Material features such as parchment quality, column layout, line count, and decorative separators help scholars determine a manuscript’s chronology and provenance.
1. The Ṣanʿāʾ Palimpsest – Discovered in Yemen in the 1970s, this palimpsest contains an overwritten text above an earlier erased layer. The differences between the two layers are minimal and reflect evolutionary scribal adjustments rather than a divergent textual tradition.
2. The Codex Parisino‑petropolitanus (CPP) – A Hijazi-script manuscript copied by multiple scribes, now dispersed across Paris, St. Petersburg, the Vatican, and private collections. Paleographer François Déroche dates it to the mid-7th century (early Umayyad period), providing key evidence of large-scale Qur’an production soon after standardization.
3. The Samarkand (Tashkent) Kufic Codex – Traditionally associated with the Caliph ʿUthmān, it is preserved partly in Tashkent’s Hast-i Imam Library. Paleographic evidence, however, suggests a later date, possibly in the 8th–9th centuries, reflecting the continuation of the Uthmanic model in a more formal Kufic hand.
During the Umayyad and Abbasid periods, Qur’anic manuscript production became institutionalized, with centralized scriptoria likely enforcing standardized page layouts, calligraphic proportions, and ornamentation. As the early unpointed script proved ambiguous for non-Arab readers, diacritical marks and vowel signs were gradually introduced. Early initiatives are often attributed to Abū al-Aswad al-Duʾalī, marking the beginning of systematic orthographic aids in Qur’anic writing.
In the 20th century, the Medina Mushaf, produced by the King Fahd Qur’an Printing Complex, became the global reference edition. The elegant script of ʿUthmān Taha, characterized by clarity and balance, defined the visual identity of this standardized text. This edition represents the harmonization of Uthmanic orthography with modern typographic precision, ensuring textual uniformity across millions of printed copies worldwide.
The Uthmanic Codex established a model that reconciled unity and diversity—a single written framework (rasm) accommodating multiple recitational traditions (qirāʾāt). Early manuscripts such as the Ṣanʿāʾ Palimpsest, the CPP, and the Samarkand Codex demonstrate the historical continuity of this textual architecture. Modern print editions perpetuate this legacy, merging traditional Uthmanic principles with contemporary publication standards—thus preserving the integrity of the Qur’anic text from the 7th century to the present.